What is Micro-controller?

Micro-Controllers:
Micro-controller is the integration of a micro-processor with memory and I/O devices, and other peripherals such as timers, on a single chip.

The general micro-controller has pins for external connections on inputs and outputs; power, clock and control signals. The pins for the inputs and outputs are grouped into I/O ports. Usually such ports have eight lines in order to be able to transfer an 8-bit word of data. Motorola 68HC11, Intel 8051 and PIC16Fxxx and PIC18Fxxx are examples of 8-bit micro-controllers.

Microcontroller Hardware:

Advantages of Micro-Controllers:
Fewer chips are required since most functions are already present on the processor chip.
Lower cost and smaller size result from a simpler design.
Lower power requirements.
Few external connections are required because most are made on-chip, and the most of the chip connections can be used for I/O
Overall reliability are higher since there are fewer components an interconnections.





Micro-Processors vs. Micro-Controllers:

• Microprocessors are most flexible, microcontrollers are most compact.

• Microprocessor based systems usually have a von Neuman architecture with a single memory for both programs and data to allow maximum flexibility in allocation of memory.

• Microcontroller chips frequency embody the Harvard architecture which has separate memories for programs and data. It has the potential advantage of the separate interface allowing twice the memory transfer rate by instruction fetches to occur in parallel with data transfer.

 

What is Microprocessor?

Microprocessor is a device which can handle complex calculation and control strategies, it  can receive low level signal from sensors and convert to digitalwhich can be transmitted into long distance. 

Advantages of Microprocessor Based Control:
1.Low-level singal from sensors, once converted to digital, can be transmitted long distances virtually error-free.
2.A microprocessor can handle complex calculations and control stratgies.
3.Changing the control stratgey is easy by loading in a new program; no hardware changes are required.
4.Microprocessor based controllers can be easily connected to computer networks within an organization. This allows the designers to enter program changes and read current status fro their desk terminals.
5.long-term memory is available to keep track of parameters in slow-moving systems. 


Arithmetic logic unit (ALU): 

 ALU is responsible foR performing  arithmetic and logical operations. It also keeps track of status flags
that tell subsequent instructions whether the result was positive,negative, or zero, and whether an addition or subs traction operationcreated a carry or borrow.



Memory:
Microprocessors require memory resources to store programs and data. Memory can be classified two broad categories:
Volitile - loses its contents when power is turned off & Non-volatile - can retain its contents even if power is turned off.
1 Read Only Memory (ROM):
Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)
Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM)
Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM)
2 Random Access Memory (RAM):
Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM)
Static Random Access Memory (SRAM)
3 Other Forms of Memory:
Cache Memory
Flash Memory
Video Memory (VRAM)


Read Only Memory:
The ROM, also known as firmware, cannot be written on or erased using the computer. ROM chips contain programs that are set in at the factory; these are special instructions for computer operations. ROM chips do not loose their contents when power is removed.
PROM - can be programmed using special equipment. Once the program is written, it cannot be erased.
EPROM - are like ROM chips except that the contents can be erased, and the new data can be written. Erasure is done with a special device that uses UV light.
EEPROM - can be reprogrammed using special electrical impulses. The advantages of EEPROM chips is that they need notto be removed from the computer to be changed.

andom Access Memory:
he RAM, also known as internal memory, primary storage or
mply memory. It has three basic tasks:
1 It holds the data for processing.
2 It holds the instructions (programs).
3 It holds the data after it is processed & waiting to be sent to a
output or storage.
The contents of the RAM address locations change continually computer executes a program. It requires fast READ and WR cycle times so as no to slow down the computer operation. A major disadvantage of RAMs is that they are volatile and lo all the stored information if power is interrupted.

Other Memories:
Cache Memory - These are usually built into the MPU chip. These allows the CPU to run faster because it does not have to take time to swap instructions in and out of the RAM. The most frequently used instructions are kept in the cache memory so the CPU can look there fast.
Flash Memory - Consists of circuitry on credit-card-size card that can be inserted into slots connecting to the PC motherboard. These are non-volatile memory. These are becoming very popular in microprocessor/micro controller based applications.
Video Memory - chips used to store display images for the monitor. The amount of video memory determines how fast images appear and how many colors are available.


Input/Output Units:
The I/O operation is defined as the transfer of data between the MPU and the external world. The term peripheral devices is used for the pieces of equipment that exchange data with a MPU
system.
In input operations the input device places the data in the data register of the interface chip to hold until it is read by the MPU In output operations, the MPU places the data in the register until it is read by the peripheral.
As the speeds and characteristics of peripheral devices can differ significantly from those of the MPUs, these are connected via interface chips to synchronize data transfers between MPU and the peripheral devices.

Buses:
There are three buses external to the MPU and two buses within MPU. The external address and data buses are the extension of the same buses inside the MPU.
1. Address Bus - is a 16-line unidirectional bus that carries 16-bit address code from the MPU to the memory unit to select the memory location which the MPU is accessing for a READ or WRITE operation.
2. Data Bus - is a 8-line bidirectional bus over which 8-bit words can be sent from the MPU to the memory or from the memory to the MPU. It can carry data/instruction codes.
3. Control Bus - is grouping of all the timing and control signals needed to synchronize the operation of MPU with the other units of the microcomputer.

Engine Lubrication System

It impossible for any engine to run efficiently without proper lubrication system.So,for safe,efficient and smooth engine operation lubrication system is must. Purposes of the lubricating system are -
1.supplies lubricating oil to all moving parts in the engine.
2.lub oil picks up engine heat and dissipates it through the oil pan.

3.oil fills the clearances between bearings and rotating journals.
4.lub oil forms a seal between piston rings and cylinder walls.
5.oil acts as a cleaning agent.

Lubricating oil is required to have the following properties-
Proper viscosity  - high viscosity oil flows too slowly and low viscosity oil has a reduced ability to stay in place - both of them may cause rapid engine wear
viscosity index (VI) - is a measure of how much the viscosity of oil changes with temperature.
viscosity numbers - single-viscosity oil has several grades - winter grade or other than winter grade.

winter grade oils are SAE 0W, SAE 5W, .., SAE 25W

other than winter grade oils are SAE 20, SAE 30, SAE 40, and SAE 50

the higher the number, the thicker the oil.

multiple-viscosity oil - has VI improver added to the oil - keeps the viscosity of oil nearly unchanged

some multi-viscosity oils are SAE 5W-30, SAE 10W-40, SAE 20W-50

resistance to carbon formation and oil oxidation.
corrosion and rust inhibitors.
detergent-dispersant's.
extreme pressure resistance.
energy-conserving oil - has friction modifiers - a chemical dissolved completely in oil or suspended carbon or molybdenum.

two types of EC oils are EC I and EC II - EC II provides better fuel-economy than an EC I oil

synthetic oil - made from carbon compounds and alcohols, or from coal and crude oil - better than petroleum based oils.

Lubrication system components:

Oil pump - two types of oil pumps are used.

gear-type pump

rotor-type pump

Drive arrangement of oil pumps are:
in camshaft-in-block engines, the camshaft spiral gear that drives the ignition distributor usually drives the oil pump.
in OHC engines, the oil pump is driven by separate drive shaft - 'jackshaft'.
in distributor less engines, oil pumps are driven by crankshaft.


Oil filters:
oil from the pump flows through the filter.the filter has a pleated paper filtering element.it has a spring-loaded bypass valve.some have anti-drain back valve - helps prevent oil from draining out while the engine is off.
some engines use internal oil filters - attach directly to the oil pump.

Oil pressure indicators: warn the driver if engine pressure is too low.There are four types-
indicator light - connected through an oil pressure switch - very common.
elelectric gauge - balancing coil type - the engine unit has a diaphragm connected to a sliding contact.
electronic gauge - bar graph display made up of a series of segments.

Oil level indicator (dipstick):
markings on the dipstick indicate full or add oil.some vehicles have low oil-level indicator light.Some cars have oil-change indicator light -the body control module (BCM) monitors the coolant-temperature sensor, engine speed sensor, and vehicle speed sensor.




Crankcase ventilation:
Crankcase ventilation is necessary to remove water, gasoline, and blow by gases - prevents the formation of sludge.Most recent engines use positive crankcase ventilation (PCV) system.Sludge is a thick, creamy, black substance - clogs oil screen and line.Whipping of water and oil by crankshaft creates sludge, dirt and carbon makes the colour black. Water comes into the crankcase with blow by gases and the crankcase ventilation system.Sludge forms when the engine operates cold most of the time.It forms when the cooling-system thermostat is removed.The vehicle must be driven long enough to prevent sludge
The 'normal operating temperature' vapourises water and blown away by crankcase ventilation system - thus prevents the formation of sludge.In addition to oil, other lubricants and special fluids are used in cars.Grease - a semi-solid fluid is very common made from petroleum and thickened with metallic soaps such as, Li, Ca, Na, Al, and Ba or non-metallic substance like clay .a good grease must have consistency, stability, oxidation resistance, ability to protect against friction, wear and corrosion, and feed ability.they may be-

1.wheel-bearing grease.
2.universal-joint grease.
3.chassis grease.
4.extended-lubrication interval (ELI) chassis grease.
5.multipurpose grease.
6.extreme pressure (EP) grease.
others
The engine loses oil by burning or by leaking.Three main factors resulting in 'more than normal' oil consumption are-





engine speed - high speed produces high temperature and lowers oil viscosity - oil can get into the combustion chamber and get burnt, oil-control ring can flutter or float, crankcase ventilation system takes some oil with it in the form of mist.

engine wear - such as, bearing wear, cylinder wear, piston ring wear, valve guide wear - causes more oil consumption.
engine oil can leak past the gaskets (sealing), from loose fittings, or filter

Causes of low oil pressure are:
1.A weak or broken relief valve spring.

2.A worn oil pump .                                            
3.A broken or cracked oil line.
4.An obstruction in the oil line.
5.Insufficient or thin oil.
6.Worn engine bearings.
7.A leaking oil filter, oil filter gasket, or oil-pressure sending unit.

Excessive oil pressure results from-
1. A stuck pressure relief valve.
2.Wrong spring in the pressure relief valve.
3.A clogged oil line.
4.Thick oil.
Oil changes:
Change oil when it gets dirty or contaminated - a result of wearing out of additives

• schedule I - change engine oil and filter every 5000 km

• schedule II - change oil every 12,500 km and change the oil filter the first oil change and every other time after that

Engine Cooling System

Engine Cooling System:For proper working of any engine,proper functioning of   cooling   system is
must.Cooling system ensures actual engine operation without any hazard or danger.Proper cooling system
increase engine efficiency.

Cooling system performs the following three functions:    
1.it prevents overheating of the engine by removing excess heat
2.it keeps the engine at normal operating temperature
3.it provides a source of heat for the passenger compartment heater and air conditioner

Engine cooling system has five basic parts -
water jackets, water pump, thermostat, radiator, and fan

Water pump:            

Water pumps are centrifugal (impeller) pumps.The pump is driven by either a belt (fan belt) from the crankshaft pulley or by gear.The pump discharge is in the order of 28,000 litres/hr.The impeller shaft is supported on sealed bearings which never need lubrication.

Engine fan:
Engine fan or cooling fan provides additional air through the radiator.The fans are either mechanical or electrical fans.The fan is made of steel sheet or moulded plastic.It has four to seven blades.A fan shroud is used to direct the air flow.Variable speed fan is sometimes used with longitudinal engines.A thermostatic fan clutch and silicone oil fluid coupling controls the speed of the engine.Flexible blade fan reduces the power needed and reduces fan noise.the pitch of the blade decreases as fan speed increases.
Electric fan is driven by an electric motor through a thermostatic switch generally transverse engines use electric fans.electric fan drains less power from the engine and usually quieter than the mechanical fans.

Radiator:

Radiator is a heat exchanger that removes heat from the engine coolant a radiator has three main parts
radiator core, and inlet and outlet tanks.the radiator core is made of aluminium and has two sets of passages, a set of tubes, and a set of fins attached to the tubes inlet and outlet tanks are made of plastic or metal.

Radiators may be classified according to the direction of fluid flow-
down (vertical) flow radiator: Oldest type of radiator and is designed to use the downward flow caused by natural convection
cross flow radiator:Used to make way for lower bonnet lines.Normally hot inlet is situated higher than the outlet
Sometimes transmission oil cooler is fitted with outlet tank for cars with automatic trans axle or transmission.
Some radiators have expansion tank connected by an overflow or transfer tube to the radiator filler neck.
Eliminates coolant loss by surging of the coolant during heavy braking.Prevents water from boiling during long hill climbs.Raises the working temperature thus improves engine efficiency.Allows a smaller radiator to dissipate as much heat as a larger one operating at a lower temperature.

Expansion tank:

expansion tank eliminates air bubbles from the coolant which makes it more efficient. Sometimes four heat exchangers are cascaded together - nearest to the engine is the cooling system radiator. Other heat exchangers are engine oil cooler, air-to-air inter cooler, and air-conditioner condenser. There are two fans in this type of cascaded system.

Thermostatic valve:
Thermostat is a heat-operated valve that regulates coolant temperature.thermostat is placed in the coolant passage between the cylinder head and the radiator.in reverse-flow cooling system, the thermostat is placed between the lower radiator hose and the engine.thermostat opens at a specific temperature, known as the thermostat rating - two common ratings are 85C and 91C

How can we control automobile exhaust emission?

Emission Control Techniques : All types of automobile exhaust emission is harmful for our environment.so for maintain a pollution free environment automobile emission control is must.Basically there are three types of automobile emission control techniques,which are-
                                                                                               
Pre-Engine System : Hot Air Intake System

In-Engine System : MPFI, EGR,λ- sensor                                         
Post-Engine System : Thermal reactor, Catalytic Converter, DPF



Manufacture needs to attain the tail pipe emission as per the standard, which
may be done involving one or more of the systems.


Thermal Reactors :
Thermal Reactor is a device which is very effective for controlling hydro carbon and carbon monoxide.
They provide more time for the exhaust at about 600°C, allowing more complete combustion of some exhaust components. Mainly involves oxidation of HC and CO.

Exhaust gas Recirculation (EGR):
Exhaust gas recirculation is another effective and efficient method for controlling automobile emission.The percentage of exhaust gas is to be recirculated can be obtain from this
equation-
EGR % = {mEGR/(mf+ma)} x 100

EGR ensures lower temperature and lower NOx formation, at the cost of –(a)lower volumetric efficiency, (b)thermal efficiency and (c)higher HC formation.
EGR is typically done at the rate of 10-15% of the intake, not exceeding 30%.EGR is done on top of the normal residual fraction of exhaust gas.EGR is not done at idling, EGR is not done at WOT.In CI engines EGR is less common as abrasive soot particles may re-enter the engine.


Catalytic Converters (CC):
Now a days catalytic converter is the most effective device for controlling automobile exhaust emission.Typically used for SI engine emission control.There are two types
of catalytic converters.they are-

2-WAY Catalytic Converter : Removes CO and HC
3-WAY Catalytic Converter : Removes NOx, CO and HC
so 3-way catalytic converter is more effective,besouse this is able to control all three types of emission.
Catalytic Converter Efficiency = {1 – (mexhaust out / mexhaust in)} x 100 %
A CC may have different removal efficiencies for different components.

Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) :

This is mainly use to reduce PM emissions from diesel engines.DPF consists of -(a) Metallic casing (b) Substrate(Cordie rite/SiC) (c) Regeneration system (d) Monitoring system.
As the DPF is used the pressure drop increase with time.The rate of increase depend on flow rate and particulate concentration.Monitoring system is needed to control when to start regeneration or protect the engine.

Diesel Oxidation Catalyst(DOC):
They are similar to catalytic converter.Coating of Pd/Pt are provided on the ceramics substance/honeycomb
Catalyst oxidize pollutant like HC and CO to less harmful gases.It does does not need regeneration as long the catalyst are active.For proper operation of DOC the sulphur content in diesel should be very low, at least below 500 ppm or 0.05% by weight.

Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR):
SCR is the process whereby a reluctant such as ammonia or urea is mixed with NOx emissions then passed through a special flow-through catalyst to create a reduction process. During the process, the ammonia-NOx mixture is converted into harmless nitrogen and water.

What is Catalytic Converter?

CATALYTIC CONVERTERS (CC): Catalytic converters are the most effective device to control automobile exhaust emission.This is mainly for SI engine emission control.There are two types of catalytic converter 3-way and 2-way catalytic converter.Among them 3-way catalytic converter is most effective  for controlling automobile emission.Typically used for SI engine emission control.
2-WAY Catalytic Converter :   Removes  CO and HC

3-WAY Catalytic Converter :   Removes  NOx, CO and HC

Catalytic Converter Efficiency = {1 – (mexhaust out / mexhaust in)}   x 100 %

A CC may have different removal efficiencies for different components.





This figure is showing  the place where CC is most effective and it can work without influence of  engine temperature.For proper working of CC it need a optimum engine temperature, this is why it is necessary to
find out the place where the engine temperature is optimum.

The Alumina wash coat ( about 20 µm) containing the noble materials is used to enhance the surface area (100-200 m2/g) of chemical reaction.

HOW CATALYTIC CONVERTER WORK: The working procedure of a catalytic converter is basically based on different catalyst and different chemical reaction which  change harmful gases into clean gases.



Catalysts (Noble metals) :                                         
 Platinum(Pt), Rhodium (Rd),   Palladium(Pd); About 4-5 g/cat converter.
CC could be either Monolith(Honey-comb) or Pellet(Bead) type.

2-Way Catalytic Converter : Catalysts - Pt, Pd             
Oxidation reaction :     CO + O2 → CO2            HC + O2 → CO2 +H2O         

 3-Way Catalytic Converter : Catalysts - Pt, Rd, (Pd)             




                 





Reducing reaction :           
NO + CO → ½ N2 + CO2   2 NO + 5H2 → 2NH3 + 2H2O
NO + H2 → ½ N2 + H2O    2NO + 5CO + 3H2O → 2NH3 + 5CO2   
                                          
Oxidation reaction :     CO + O2 → CO2            HC + O2 → CO2 +H2O   

 •  3-way catalytic converters work best with engines having  precise control of air-fuel ratio. Many of them use O2 sensors incorporated at the exhaust, communicating with the engine management system.
Specially the NOx reduction reaction requires very accurate air-fuel ratio, regular carburetors and simple fuel-injection are simply too inaccurate to keep up to the requirement.
•  Catalytic converters stars working effectively as they get warm above 250-300°C. The reactions taking place are exothermic. Converter material should be able to with stand up to 1000°C. Generally heat
shields are used to protect other parts of the vehicle body.
•  Extra oxygen is needed to support the reactions, that might be provided by lean air-fuel ratio or pump-type air injection.

A Catalytic Converter specification:
Engine displacement :   1.5 liter,2000cc           
Engine speed :    2000-3000  rpm
Minimum operating temperature :  250 C
Maximum allowable pressure :  800 C
Maximum allowable back pressure :  2 psi
Fuel specification :   Unleaded, S-content
Maximum pollutant in intake :  HC,CO,NOX
Pollutant reduction efficiency :  70% of HC, CO
Expected life :  100,000 km





Catalytic Converter Performance:
•  Unleaded (Pb free) fuel is essential to prevent ‘Fouling’ of Catalytic converters.
•  Most common cause of failure is an engine that pumps too much unburned fuel, which can overheat or
    carbon-clog the catalyst.
•  Fuel specification like Sulphur content should be maintained to prevent catalyst poisoning decorating
   performance.   
•  Fouling, clogging, meltdown, breakage of ceramic substance may cause a converter to stop doing its job,
    and/or plug it and raise back pressure. 
•  In most automobiles you need to use a silencer in addition the
    catalytic converter to achieve desired low noise level.

What is Gas Turbune?

Construction of Gas Turbine:
The working components of the gas turbine are assembled on a welded steel frame which also houses the fuel and lubricating oil tanks. Two doors provide access to the electrical fuses and the electronic logic and safety systems. The complete apparatus is mounted on wheels. The gas turbine consists of two principal components, the gas generator and the separate power turbine. Ancillary equipment includes two pumps (for fuel and lubricating oil) and an internally constructed start-up fan system. A new semi-automatic system for injecting alcohol during start-up is included.

Gas Generator:
The gas generator consists of a radial flow compressor of improved design, an improved combustion chamber and a radial flow turbine. The arrangement of the main components of the gas generator has been changed to reduce the length of connecting ducting and inert fiber insulation has been introduced to minimize heat loss. Air enters the compressor through an intake silencer and a venturimeter. After the compressor, the air passes through the vertical combustion chamber and then to the gas generator turbine.The speed of the compressor and turbine is measured photo-electrically and displayed on a digital counter. The gas generator may be run throughout the speed range 50,000 to 90,000 rpm and is stable at all intermediate speeds. Speed is regulated by the fuel flow control valve located on the speed control panel.

Combustion Chamber:
The combustion chamber is manufactured from 'Nimonic' steel and has been re-designed to ensure easy starting and to ensure 'clean' combustion over a wide range of running conditions. Particular attention has been paid to flame stability at light load. Pressure loss through the combustion chamber is small and the maximum continuous temperature is 700oC. The kerosene fuel is sprayed into the combustion chamber through a special nozzle and the use of a liquid fuel reduces the possibility of over-speed conditions because the fuel flow through the nozzle is automatically restricted as the compressor delivery pressure rises.

Power Turbine:
The hot gas issuing from the exhaust of the gas generator is passed through an insulated duct to the inlet of the re-designed power turbine. The power turbine is larger than the gas generator turbine and is of inward radial flow design. The shortened insulated duct connecting the gas generator to the power turbine reduces the heat losses to the atmosphere. The speed of the power turbine is measured electromagnetically and is displayed on a digital counter.The power turbine is directly coupled to the eddy current brake and the exhaust gases pass through a suitable outside wall or into a suitable exhaust gas system. The low gas velocities through the power turbine ensure that exhaust noise level is sufficiently low to avoid the need for a silencer.

Fuel System:
Kerosene is the operating fuel.Fuel is pumped by an electrically driven gear pump and at pressure of 6 bars (90 psi) from fuel tank. The fuel flow is regulated by a manual valve located in the control panel and is measured by a 'Rotameter'. During the start sequence methylated alcohol or methanol is automatically injected and is ignited by the high energy spark system. The alcohol flame then ignites the kerosene.

Lubricating Oil System:
A self-contained lubricating oil system is provided which includes a water cooled oil cooler and the necessary filters. Instruments are provided to indicate lubricating oil temperature and pressure.

Semi-Automatic Starting System:
Four electrically driven fans, built into the intake silencer, provide a flow of air through the gas generator during the start sequence. Alcohol is gravity fed to the combustion chamber and controlled by a solenoid valve. The alcohol is ignited by the high energy spark system and during this stage of the start only one of the four electrically driven fans is in use. When a flame is detected (as shown by one of the temperature indicators) the fuel pump is switched on. An automatic system then switches on the remaining fans and admits the correct amount of kerosene to achieve an idling speed on the gas generator of 45/50,000 rpm. The manual control valve is then used to increase the speed to 55/60,000 rpm and the fans can be turned off. Throughout the start sequence indicator lights show what is happening such as: number of fans in use, alcohol present in combustion chamber, high energy spark on, etc

Safety Equipment:This test set is designed for safe and accurate experimental work by students without continuous supervision. A comprehensive system of safety devices has been incorporated to ensure that the apparatus will shut down automatically if any of the following faults develop-
1. Low lubricating oil pressure.
2. High combustion chamber outlet temperature.
3. Mains electricity failure.
A warning light is provided to indicate excessive temperature in the eddy current brake. The complete starting and shut-down sequence is controlled by a system of electrical and electronic logic devices which will only permit the correct sequence of starting to be used and which will also automatically switch on the starting fans to cool the machine after shut-down at the end of an experiment or after automatic shut-down resulting from a malfunction.

Automobile exhaust emission and Environmental pollution

IC engine exhaust emission is one of the most leading source of environmental pollution all over the world.
So allover the world many countries have introduced strong legislation to prohibit the emission above 

certain levels.Vehicle emission standard have been made very stringent during the last few years.US emission 

 have provided in impetus for the development of  hybrid electric and fuel cell vehicles,which are close
to commercial production.In addition to development of alternative energy vehicles ,future challenge for research in IC engines are in the area of exhaust after treatment under lean engine operation ,and in the area
of further improvements in the control of engine breathing and fuel introduction.

Emission from IC engines:
Expected Products :   CO2   and   H2O                                                                                                        Undesirable Products :
CO   Unburned HC NOx  PM  SOx   Pb

Major Emission Concerns : SI and CI engine has
different polluting emissions,which are responsible
foe atmospheric pollution.
SI Engines :   CO,  Unburned HC, NOx, Pb
CI Engines :  PM, NOx, Unburned HC, SOx

Unburned HC :    Major Concern for SI engines.
Could be as high as 6000 ppm, 1.5% of fuel
Constitutes of fuel itself and partially reacted components.
 
Causes of Formation : (a)  Non-Stoichiometric AF ratios of combustion ,(b) Incomplete combustion, EGR
(c)Crevice volumes (d) Valve Overlap (e)Oil or deposition on combustion chamber wall

Carbon Monoxide (CO) : Major Concern for SI engines.Could be as high as 5% of exhaust volume.
 
Causes of Formation :   Non-Stoichiometric AF ratios of combustion and Incomplete combustion, EGR

Nitrogen Oxides : Major Concern for both SI and CI engines. Could be as high as 2000 ppm
Constitutes of No and NO2

Causes of Formation :   High temperature of combustion Availability of excess Oxygen at high temp .
Highest rate at slightly lean mixture (Φ=0.95)

Photo-Chemical Smog :
NO2 + Energy from Sunlight → NO + O → O + O2 → O3 (Ground level)
Particulate Matter (PM) :  Major Concern for CI engines, may be in SI engines at high loads. High concentration effects the opacity of exhaust (smoke). Constitutes of Carbon Soot Particle, coated with SO3 and Soluble .Organic Fractions (SOF) of fuel. Average mean diameter – 10 µm (PM 10), 2.5 µm (PM 2.5)


Causes of Formation : (a) Near-Stoichiometric AF ratios of combustion (b) Presence of heavy components in the fuel (c)Richer burning at high loads (d)At higher temperatures :  PM decrease   but   NOX increase.


Sulfur Oxides (SOx) : This is one of the major Concern for CI engines.
Formation :  Sulfur in fuel SI (150-600 ppm), CI (5000 ppm-1%)  LSD (low sulfur diesel), ULSD (Ultra low sulfur diesel < 50ppm)


Emission Standards :
Emission Standards may vary in different countries. The standards are getting stringent day by day.
EURO stand.     CARB stand.      FTP stand.      EPA stand.  Mode stand.

What is Gasoline Direct Ignition (GDI) Engine?

Like other IC engine,like petrol or diesel engine GDI is also an internal combustion engine,but main difference is that in GDI injection occur during the intake stroke or sometimes in compression stroke.
GDI engine has some advantages-
1.GDI has better Anti-knock than other system
2.Better transient Response
3.Better volumetric efficiency

It has also problems-
1.DGI has Greater need of Emission Control
2.C0mbustion .Chamber design and Control
of GDI is complex.
3.There is a Problem of matching with Cat Converter
Design for GDI engine.

 Direct Gasoline Injection was introduced on production
aircraft during WWII, with both German (Daimler Benz) and
Soviet (KB Khimavtomatika) designs. During the
late 1970s, the Ford Motor Company developed
a stratified-charge engine they called
"ProCo" (programmed combustion), utilizing a unique high pressure pump and direct injectors.

It was not until 1996 that gasoline direct injection reappeared in the automotive market. Mitsubishi Motors was the first with a GDI engine in the Japanese market Galant/Legnum's  4G93 1.8 L straight-4, which it subsequently brought to

Europe in 1997 in the Mitsubishi Carisma, and 2.4L GDI for Galant, although Europe's high-sulphur fuel led to emissions problems, and fuel efficiency was less than expected. It also developed the first six cylinder GDI power plant, the 6G74 3.5 L V6, in 1997. Mitsubishi applied this technology widely, producing over one million GDI engines in four families by 2001, PSA Peugeot Citroën and Hyundai Motors both licensed Mitsubishi's GDI technology in 1999, the latter using the first GDI V8. Toyota introduced direct injection engine D4 (Toyota AZ engine) in 2000 Toyota Avensis. Although other companies have since developed gasoline direct injection engines, GDI (with an uppercase final "I") remains a registered trademark of Mitsubishi Motors.

 The major advantages of a GDI engine are increased fuel efficiency and high power
output. In addition, the cooling effect of the injected fuel and the more evenly dispersed
mixtures allow for more aggressive ignition timing curves. Emissions levels can also be
more accurately controlled with the GDI system. The cited gains are achieved by the
precise control over amount of fuel and injection timings which are varied according to the load conditions.

In addition, there are no throttling losses in some GDI engines, when compared to a conventional fuel injected or carburetter engine, which greatly improves efficiency in engines without a throttle plate. Engine speed is controlled by the engine management system (EMS) which regulates fuel injection function and
ignition timing, instead of having a throttle plate which restricts the incoming air supply. Adding this function to the EMS requires considerable enhancement of its processing and memory, as direct injection plus the engine speed management must have very precise algorithms for good performance/drive ability.




Direct injection of gasoline into the cylinder is rarely used because of (a) the difficulty of finding space in the head for an injector,(b) the added cooling and casting complications,(c) the added cost,(d) the refinements that are necessary for idling ,and(e) the problem of exact metering at high loads from cylinder to cylinder owining to the individual plungers.

what is Programmable Logic Controller(PLC)?

A programmable logic controller (PLC) is a microcomputer which is designed to control processes and events in an industrial environment-that is,to take over the job previously done with relay logic controllers.so we can say PLC is the replacement of relay logic controller.
PLC  has some advantages-
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)  is suitable for rugged design harsh industrial environments against   high temperature variations, dust, and vibrations
it has    Industry standard I/O interfaces;
capable of communicating with other PLCs, computers and intelligent devices.
Industry standard programming languages; easily learned and  understood. Programming is primarily concerned with logic, timing, counting and switching operations.
 Field programmable.
 Reduces hard wiring and wiring cost.                                                                                                            Monitoring, error checking and diagnostics capability.
Competitive in both cost and space requirements. 

Basic Components:
 PLC is essentially a microcomputer, tailored specifically for certain  control tasks.
 Hardware: consists of the actual device technology, i.e. the PCBs,  integrated modules, wires, battery, housing etc.
Firmware: is the software part, known as executive software, that   is permanently installed and supplied by the the PLC  manufacturer. Programs are usually stored in ROM or EPROM.
Software:is is the user program.user program usually stored in the RAM.
 What is Firmware? 
 PLC hardware does not differ significantly from computers. What  makes the PLC special is the executive software. It is the internal  program, provided by the manufacturer,which executes the user’s program.       The executive software determines                                                                 
-  what functions are available to the user’s program,
-  how the program is solved,                                                                      
-  how the I/O is serviced,
-  what the PLC does during power up and down and fault conditions.
                                                                                                                                                       Multitasking Capability
Some PLCs are capable of executing multiple tasks with a single processor.user  program assigns I/O for each task separately.
Multitasking may take several forms:
Time driven - it is possible to configure the processor to run each task on periodic time intervals.
Event driven or interrupt driven-user defines a particular event,such as input changing state or an output turning off,that causes each tasks to run.



Considerations in Choosing PLC :
1.Number and Types of input & output points required
2.Size and type of memory required
3.Speed and power required of CPU and instruction set
4.Manufacturer’s support and backup
PLCs basic hardware are-
power supply,memory,Central processing unit(CPU)/logic solver,I/O interface ,programming section.
Memory:The memory function of CPU stores program and data that's the CPU need to perform various operations.The memory is to organized into several sections-

• Executive memory
• Scratch pad
• Processor file

Central processing unit(CPU):
CPU execute a program stored in executive the memory is set by the manufacturer.It organize all control activities by receiving inputs,performing logical decisions according to the program,and control the output.CPU does not operate I/O directly,its works with the I/O image stored in the I/O image memory.The I/O interface is responsible for transferring the image outputs to the I/O system.A "watchdog " timer is provided to time the CPU to executed the user's program.

the HVAC System,an integral part of building construction.

Now a days HVAC system is an integral part in building construction field.HAVC means heating, ventilation and air conditioning.
the ancient Romans had remarkably good radiant heating in some buildings,which was achieved by warming air and then circulating it in hollow floors and walls.In the dry climate of the middle east,people hung wet mats in front of open doorways and achieved a  crude form of evaporative air cooling.In Europe,Leonardo da Vinci designed a large evaporative cooler.
The development of HVAC was begun scarcely 100 years ago.Central heating system was developed in the nineteenth century,and summer air conditioning using mechanical refrigeration has grown into a major industry only in the last 60 years.A typical person in modern society may spend up to 90% of each day indoors.It is not surprising,therefore,that providing a healthy,comfortable indoor environment has become a major factor in our economy.
Air conditioning:
many of the peoples air conditioning simply means "the cooling of air".for engineering purpose this definition is neither sufficiently useful no accurate.the real definition is-
Air conditioning is the process for treating air in an internal environment to establish and maintain required standards of temperature,humidity,cleanliness,and motion.
Sound control can be considered an auxiliary function of air conditioning system.even though the system itself may be the cause of the problem.the air conditioning equipment can produce excessive noise,requiring additional sound attenuating devices as part of the equipment.
The definition of air conditioning given hare is not meant to imply that every HVAC system regulates all of the conditions described.A hot water or steam heating system only control air temperature,and only during the heating season.A warm air system also control temperature in winter only.by adding humidifier we can also control humidity.
Air conditioning system used for newer commercial and industrial buildings and luxury apartment houses usually provide year-round control of most or all of the air conditions described.For this reason,it is becoming increasingly popular to call complete HVAC systems environmental control systems.
Components: most heating and cooling system has following basis components-

• A heating source
• A cooling source
• A distribution system
• Equipment for moving air or water
• devices for transferring heat between the fluid and the room

the development of an HVAC system for a building consists of a number of steps.these are- 

• design 
• installation
• operation &regular maintenance
• service

If anyone want to learn about HVAC ,the most important thing is to locate a proposed building and follow the HVAC system development through planning ,installation,and operation.This experience will help him a lot to get a clear concept about HVAC beside study.

Refrigerants ,Ozone depletion and Global warming.

 what is refrigerant?
A refrigerant is any body or substance,which acts as a cooling agent by absorbing heat from another body and substance.theoretically, any reasonably  volatile substance which is liquid at the temperature desired in the evaporator can be used as a refrigerant,but in practice the choice is limited by factors such as toxicity,cos ,flammability,chemical stability etc.
there are two types of refrigerants,primary refrigerant & secondary refrigerant.

primary refrigerant:A primary refrigerant is one ,which is used in a recirculating cycle and is accompanied a change in state.during cyclic process it undergoes compression,condensation,expansion and evaporation.

secondary refrigerant: A secondary refigerant is one,which is used as heat transfer medium without a change of state but with a change in temperature.

many refrigerants have been used over the years and some of them have become obsolete and since replaced by newer refrigerants.some currently popular refrigerants are being phased out due to their damaging effect on ozone layer.conventional refrigerants are four types-
1.Inorganic 2.Azeotropes 3.Halocarbon 4.Hydrocarbon.
Ozone Depletion and Global Warming:
among these four refrigerant groups,some of the rfrigerants in the Halocarbon family have lost favour becouse of their negative impect on environmental issues.
Helocarbon refigerants contain one or more of the three halogens-chlorine,fluorine and bromine.these refrigerants are obtained by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms in a hydrocaron molecule.because of their great stability,fully halogenated compounds,such as chloflurocarbons(CFCs) persist in the atmosphere for many years and eventually diffuse into the atmosphere.the molecules of CFCs ,such as R11 and R12,contain only carbon and halogens contains contain chlorine and fluorine.
Once in the uper atmosphere,the CFC molecules break down releasing chlorine,which destroys ozone and causes Ozone Depletion.

In the lower atmosphere ,the CFC molecules absorb infrared radiation,which may contribute to the worming of the earth,this is called Global Warming.Substitution of a hudrogen atom by  one or more of the halogens in a CFC molecules greatly reduces its  lifelime in atmosphere and consequently its negative impect.These compounds are reffered to as hydrochlofluorocarbons(HCFCs).
So the ozone depleting refrgerants will be phased out as per decision of the Montreal protocol,an international treaty.

what is mechatronics?

mechatronics is the synergistic combination of  precision mechanical engineering,electronic control and system thinking in the design of products and manufacturing process.
we can also say, mechatronics is a methodology used for the optimal design of electromechanical products.

the portmanteau mechatronics  was first coined by Mr Tetsuro Mori,a senior engineer of the japanese companyYaskawa.in1969.

mechatronics constituents:there are three basic mechatronics constituences.they are-

1. Electronic Engineering
2. Mechanical Engineering
3. software Engineering

Mechatronics key elements: there are some mechatronics key eklements-

• modeling and simulation
• automatic control
• opimization
• mechanical systems
• electrical systems
• computer systems
• actuators
• sensors

What is modeling and simulation?
Modeling: modeling is the process of representing the behaviour   of real system by a collection of mathematical equation and logic.
Simulation: simulation is the process of solving the model and is performed on computer.
simulation process has three basic steps-

1. Initialization
2. Iteration
3. termination

what is optimization?
In mechatronics optimization is primarily used to establish   the optimal system configuration.its solves the problem of distributing limiting resources throughout a system such that the pre-specified aspects of its behaviour is satisfied.
automation in production system:
it as technology concerned with the application of mechanical ,electronic and computer based systems to operate  and control production.
production system is the collection of people,equipment,an procedures organized to accomplish the manufacturing activities of a company.it can be divided into two categories-

• fcilities
• manufacturing support system

references:
M.B. Histand & D.G. Alciatore,Introduction to mechatronics & measurement systems,McGraw-Hill,Inc.
S. Centinkunt,mechatrinics,J. Wiley &Sons,Inc.
C.T. Kilian,Modern Control Techology,Thomson Delmar Learning.

what is modern control system ?

a control system is an interconnection of  components forming a system configuration that will provide a desired system response.
primary reasons: power amplification,remote control,convenience of input form,compensation for disturbances.

important outcomes:1. increased productivity and lower product cost 2.better and more uniform quality of product 3.greater safety for operating personnel.

classifications:
open loop system: output has no control on control action.
closed loop system: maintains a prescribed relationship between the output & some reference input by comparing them and using the difference as a means of control.
servomechanism: a feedback control system to control motion.
process control system: a process control system where one or more process variables such as temperature,flow,fluid leveletc are controlled.
batch process: is a sequence of timed operations executed on the product being manufactured.
continuous process:one or more operations are being performed as the product is being passed through a process.


controllers:
1.continuous controllers
2.discontinuous controllers

continuous controller: P controller,I controller,PD controller,PI controller,PID controller.

discontinuous: two-position,three-position, multiposition controller.